OFFICIAL NAME:
Republic of the Sudan
Geography
Area: 2.5 million sq. km. (967,500 sq. mi.); the largest country in
Africa and almost the size of continental U.S. east of the
Mississippi River.
Cities: Capital--Khartoum (pop. 1.4 million). Other cities--Omdurman
(2.1 million), Port Sudan (pop. 450,000), Kassala, Kosti, Juba
(capital of southern region).
Land boundaries: Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic
of the Congo, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Libya, and Uganda.
Terrain: Generally flat with mountains in east and west. Khartoum is
situated at the confluence of the Blue and White Nile Rivers. The
southern regions are inundated during the annual floods of the Nile
River system (the Suud or swamps).
Climate: Desert and savanna in the north and central regions and
tropical in the south.
People
Nationality: Noun and
adjective (sing. and pl.)--Sudanese.
Population (2008 est.): 40,218,456; 30%-33% urban.
Annual growth rate (2004 est.): 2.134%.
Ethnic groups: Arab/Muslim north and black African/Christian and
animist south.
Religions: Islam (official), indigenous beliefs (southern Sudan),
Christianity.
Languages: Arabic (official), English, tribal languages.
Education: Years compulsory--8.
Attendance--35%-40%.
Literacy--61%.
Health: Infant mortality rate--86.98/1,000. Life
expectancy--50.28 yrs.
Work force: Agriculture--80%; industry and commerce--7%;
government--13%.
Government
Independence: January 1, 1956.
Type: Provisional Government established by the Comprehensive
Peace Agreement (CPA) signed in January 2005 that provides for power
sharing pending national elections. The CPA stipulates that national
elections are to occur no later than July 2009.
Constitution: The Interim National Constitution was adopted on July
6, 2005. It was drafted by the National Constitutional Review
Commission, as mandated by the January 2005 CPA. The Government of
Southern Sudan also has a constitution adopted in December 2005; it
was certified by the Ministry of Justice to be in conformity with
the Interim National Constitution and the Comprehensive Peace
Agreement.
Branches: Executive--executive authority is held by the
president, who also is the prime minister, head of state, head of
government, and commander in chief of the armed forces; effective
July 9, 2005, the executive branch includes a first vice president
and a vice president. As stipulated by the Comprehensive Peace
Agreement, the first vice president position is held by a person
selected by the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement (SPLM).
Legislative--National Legislature. The National Assembly, the
lower house, has 450 members with a power-sharing formula which
allows the ruling National Congress Party to get 52%; the SPLM, 28%;
other Northern and Southern parties, 14% and 6% respectively. There
is also an upper house, the Council of States, which is composed of
two representatives from each of the nation's 26 states, including
two observers from Abyei. Judicial--High Court, Minister of
Justice, Attorney General, civil and special tribunals.
Administrative subdivisions: Twenty-six states, each with a governor
appointed by the president, along with a state cabinet and a state
legislative assembly.
Political parties: Currently there are several political parties in
both the nation's north and south. All political parties were banned
following the June 30, 1989 military coup. Political associations,
which take the place of parties, were authorized in 2000. Some
parties are in self-imposed exile.
Central government budget (2007 est.): $9.201 billion.
Defense (2005 est.): 3% of GDP.
Economy
GDP (2008 est.): 88.95 billion
GDP annual growth rate (2008 est.): 5.3%.
Per capita income GDP (2008 est.): $2,200.
Avg. annual inflation rate (2008 est.): 16.5%.
Natural resources: Modest reserves of oil, natural gas, gold, iron
ore, copper, and other industrial metals.
Agriculture: Products--cotton, peanuts, sorghum, sesame
seeds, gum arabic, sugarcane, millet, livestock.
Industry: Types--motor vehicle assembly, cement, cotton,
edible oils and sugar refining.
Trade: Exports (2008 est.)--$13.62 billion f.o.b: crude oil
and petroleum products, cotton, gold, sorghum, peanuts, gum arabic,
sugar, meat, hides, live animals, and sesame seeds. Major markets--Egypt,
United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Malaysia, China, South Korea,
Japan. Imports (2007 est.)--$7.757 billion f.o.b: oil and petroleum
products, oil pipeline, pumping and refining equipment, chemical
products and equipment, wheat and wheat flour, transport equipment,
foodstuffs, tea, agricultural inputs and machinery, industrial
inputs and manufactured goods. Major suppliers--European
Union, China, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, United Arab Emirates,
and India.
Fiscal year: January 1-December 31.
PEOPLE
Sudan’s population is one of the most diverse on the African
continent. Within two distinct major cultures--Arab and black
African--there are hundreds of ethnic and tribal subdivisions and
language groups, which make effective collaboration among them a
major political challenge.
The northern states cover most of the Sudan and include most of the
urban centers. Most of the 22 million Sudanese who live in this
region are Arabic-speaking Muslims, though the majority also uses a
non-Arabic mother tongue--e.g., Nubian, Beja, Fur, Nuban, Ingessana,
etc. Among these are several distinct tribal groups: the Kababish of
northern Kordofan, a camel-raising people; the Ja’alin and Shaigiyya
groups of settled tribes along the rivers; the semi-nomadic Baggara
of Kordofan and Darfur; the Hamitic Beja in the Red Sea area and
Nubians of the northern Nile areas, some of whom have been resettled
on the Atbara River; and the Nuba of southern Kordofan and Fur in
the western reaches of the country.
The southern region has a population of around 6 million and a
predominantly rural, subsistence economy. Except for a ten-year
hiatus, southern Sudan has been embroiled in conflict, resulting in
major destruction and displacement since independence. The conflict
has severely affected the population of the South resulting in over
2 million deaths and more than 4 million people displaced. The
Southern Sudanese practice mainly indigenous traditional beliefs,
although Christian missionaries have converted some. The South also
contains many tribal groups and many more languages than are used in
the north. The Dinka--whose population is estimated at more than 1
million--is the largest of the many black African tribes in Sudan.
The Shilluk and the Nuer are among the Nilotic tribes. The Azande,
Bor, and Jo Luo are Sudanic tribes in the west, and the Acholi and
Lotuhu live in the extreme south, extending into Uganda.
In 2008, Sudan's population reached an estimated 40.2 million. A new
census was conducted in early 2008. The complete census results are
expected in 2009.
HISTORY
Sudan was a collection of small, independent kingdoms and
principalities from the beginning of the Christian era until
1820-21, when Egypt conquered and unified the northern portion of
the country. However, neither the Egyptian nor the Mahdist state
(1883-1898) had any effective control of the southern region outside
of a few garrisons. Southern Sudan remained an area of fragmented
tribes, subject to frequent attacks by slave raiders.
In 1881, a religious leader named Muhammad ibn Abdalla proclaimed
himself the Mahdi, or the "expected one," and began a religious
crusade to unify the tribes in western and central Sudan. His
followers took on the name "Ansars" (the followers) which they
continue to use today and are associated with the single largest
political grouping, the Umma Party, led by a descendant of the Mahdi,
Sadiq al Mahdi.
Taking advantage of dissatisfaction resulting from
Ottoman-Egyptian exploitation and maladministration, the Mahdi led a
nationalist revolt culminating in the fall of Khartoum in 1885. The
Mahdi died shortly thereafter, but his state survived until
overwhelmed by an invading Anglo-Egyptian force under Lord Kitchener
in 1898. While nominally administered jointly by Egypt and Britain,
Britain exercised control, formulated policies, and supplied most of
the top administrators.
Independence
In February 1953, the United Kingdom and Egypt concluded an
agreement providing for Sudanese self-government and
self-determination. The transitional period toward independence
began with the inauguration of the first parliament in 1954. With
the consent of the British and Egyptian Governments, Sudan achieved
independence on January 1, 1956, under a provisional constitution.
This constitution was silent on two crucial issues for southern
leaders--the secular or Islamic character of the state and its
federal or unitary structure. However, the Arab-led Khartoum
government reneged on promises to southerners to create a federal
system, which led to a mutiny by southern army officers that
launched 17 years of civil war (1955-72).
Sudan has been at war with itself for more than three quarters of
its existence. Since independence, protracted conflict rooted in
deep cultural and religious differences have slowed Sudan’s economic
and political development and forced massive internal displacement
of its people. Northerners, who have traditionally controlled the
country, have sought to unify it along the lines of Arabism and
Islam despite the opposition of non-Muslims, southerners, and
marginalized peoples in the west and east. The resultant civil
strife affected Sudan’s neighbors, as they alternately sheltered
fleeing refugees or served as operating bases for rebel movements.
In 1958, General Ibrahim Abboud seized power and pursued a policy of
Arabization and Islamicization for both North and South Sudan that
strengthened Southern opposition. General Abboud was overthrown in
1964 and a civilian caretaker government assumed control. Southern
leaders eventually divided into two factions, those who advocated a
federal solution and those who argued for self-determination, a
euphemism for secession since it was assumed the south would vote
for independence if given the choice.
Until 1969, there was a succession of governments that proved
unable either to agree on a permanent constitution or to cope with
problems of factionalism, economic stagnation, and ethnic
dissidence. These regimes were dominated by "Arab" Muslims who
asserted their Arab-Islamic agenda and refused any kind of
self-determination for southern Sudan.
In May 1969, a group of communist and socialist officers led by
Colonel Gaafar Muhammad Nimeiri, seized power. A month after coming
to power, Nimeiri proclaimed socialism (instead of Islamism) for the
country and outlined a policy of granting autonomy to the South.
Nimeiri in turn was the target of a coup attempt by communist
members of the government. It failed and Nimeiri ordered a massive
purge of communists. This alienated the Soviet Union, which withdrew
its support.
Already lacking support from the Muslim parties he had chased from
power, Nimeiri could no longer count on the communist faction.
Having alienated the right and the left, Nimeiri turned to the south
as a way of expanding his limited powerbase. He pursued peace
initiatives with Sudan’s hostile neighbors, Ethiopia and Uganda,
signing agreements that committed each signatory to withdraw support
for the other’s rebel movements. He then initiated negotiations with
the southern rebels and signed an agreement in Addis Ababa in 1972
that granted a measure of autonomy to the South. Southern support
helped him put down two coup attempts, one initiated by officers
from the western regions of Darfur and Kordofan who wanted for their
region the same privileges granted to the south.
However, the Addis Ababa Agreement had no support from either the
secularist or Islamic Northern parties. Nimeiri concluded that their
lack of support was more threatening to his regime than lack of
support from the south so he announced a policy of national
reconciliation with all the religious opposition forces. These
parties did not feel bound to observe an agreement they perceived as
an obstacle to furthering an Islamist state. The scales against the
peace agreement were tipped in 1979 when Chevron discovered oil in
the south. Northern pressure built to abrogate those provisions of
the peace treaty granting financial autonomy to the south.
Ultimately in 1983, Nimeiri abolished the Southern region, declared
Arabic the official language of the South (instead of English) and
transferred control of Southern armed forces to the central
government. This was effectively a unilateral abrogation of the 1972
peace treaty. The second Sudan civil war began in January 1983 when
southern soldiers mutinied rather than follow orders transferring
them to the North.
In September 1983, as part of an Islamicization campaign, President
Nimeiri announced that traditional Islamic punishments drawn from
Shari’a (Islamic Law) would be incorporated into the penal code.
This was controversial even among Muslim groups. Amputations for
theft and public lashings for alcohol possession became common.
Southerners and other non-Muslims living in the north were also
subjected to these punishments.
In April 1985, while out of the country, Nimeiri was overthrown by a
popular uprising in Khartoum provoked by a collapsing economy, the
war in the south, and political repression. Gen. Suwar al-Dahab
headed the transitional government. One of its first acts was to
suspend the 1983 constitution and disband Nimeiri’s Sudan Socialist
Union.
Elections were held in April 1986, and a civilian government took
over power. There were tentative moves towards negotiating peace
with the south. However, any proposal to exempt the south from
Islamic law was unacceptable to those who supported Arabic
supremacy. In 1989, an Islamic army faction led by General Umar al-Bashir
mounted a coup and installed the National Islamic Front. The new
government’s commitment to the Islamic cause intensified the
North-South conflict.
The Bashir government combined internal political repression with
international Islamist activism. It supported radical Islamist
groups in Algeria and supported Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait. Khartoum
was established as a base for militant Islamist groups: radical
movements and terrorist organizations like Osama Bin Laden’s al
Qaida were provided a safe haven and logistical aid in return for
financial support. In 1996, the UN imposed sanctions on Sudan for
alleged connections to the assassination attempt on Egyptian
President Mubarak.
Meanwhile, the period of the 1990s saw a growing sense of alienation
in the western and eastern regions of Sudan from the Arab center.
The rulers in Khartoum were seen as less and less responsive to the
concerns and grievances of both Muslim and non-Muslim populations
across the country. Alienation from the "Arab" center caused various
groups to grow sympathetic to the southern rebels led by the Sudan
People’s Liberation Movement/Army (SPLM/A), and in some cases,
prompted them to flight alongside it.
The policy of the ruling regime toward the South was to pursue
the war against the rebels while trying to manipulate them by
highlighting tribal divisions. Ultimately, this policy resulted in
the rebels’ uniting under the leadership of Colonel John Garang.
During this period, the SPLM/A rebels also enjoyed support from
Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Uganda. The Bashir government's "Pan-Islamic"
foreign policy, which provided support for neighboring radical
Islamist groups, was partly responsible for this support for the
rebels.
The 1990s saw a succession of regional efforts to broker an end
to the Sudanese civil war. Beginning in 1993, the leaders of
Eritrea, Ethiopia, Uganda, and Kenya pursued a peace initiative for
the Sudan under the auspices of the Intergovernmental Authority for
Development (IGAD), but results were mixed. Despite that record, the
IGAD initiative promulgated the 1994 Declaration of Principles (DOP)
that aimed to identify the essential elements necessary to a just
and comprehensive peace settlement; i.e., the relationship between
religion and the state, power sharing, wealth sharing, and the right
of self-determination for the south. The Sudanese Government did not
sign the DOP until 1997 after major battlefield losses to the SPLA.
That year, the Khartoum government signed a series of agreements
with rebel factions under the banner of "Peace from Within." These
included the Khartoum, Nuba Mountains, and Fashoda Agreements that
ended military conflict between the government and significant rebel
factions. Many of those leaders then moved to Khartoum where they
assumed marginal roles in the central government or collaborated
with the government in military engagements against the SPLA. These
three agreements paralleled the terms and conditions of the IGAD
agreement, calling for a degree of autonomy for the south and the
right of self-determination.
End to the Civil War
In July 2002, the Government of Sudan and the SPLM/A reached an
historic agreement on the role of state and religion and the right
of southern Sudan to self-determination. This agreement, known as
the Machakos Protocol and named after the town in Kenya where the
peace talks were held, concluded the first round of talks sponsored
by the IGAD. The effort was mediated by retired Kenyan General
Lazaro Sumbeiywo. Peace talks resumed and continued during 2003,
with discussions focusing on wealth sharing and three contested
areas.
On November 19, 2004, the Government of Sudan and the SPLM/A signed
a declaration committing themselves to conclude a final
comprehensive peace agreement by December 31, 2004, in the context
of an extraordinary session of the United Nations Security Council
(UNSC) in Nairobi, Kenya--only the fifth time the Council has met
outside of New York since its founding. At this session, the UNSC
unanimously adopted Resolution 1574, which welcomed the commitment
of the government and the SPLM/A to achieve agreement by the end of
2004, and underscored the international community’s intention to
assist the Sudanese people and support implementation of the
comprehensive peace agreement. In keeping with their commitment to
the UNSC, the Government of Sudan and the SPLM/A initialed the final
elements of the comprehensive agreement on December 31, 2004. The
two parties formally signed the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA)
on January 9, 2005. The U.S. and the international community have
welcomed this decisive step forward for peace in Sudan.
GOVERNMENT AND
POLITICAL CONDITIONS
Comprehensive Peace Agreement
The 2005 CPA established a new Government of National Unity and the
interim Government of Southern Sudan and called for wealth-sharing,
power-sharing, and security arrangements between the two parties.
The historic agreement provides for a ceasefire, withdrawal of
troops from southern Sudan, and the repatriation and resettlement of
refugees. It also stipulates that by the end of the six-year interim
period, during which the various provisions of the CPA are
implemented, there will be elections at all levels, including for
president, state governors, and national and state legislatures.
On July 9, 2005, the Presidency was inaugurated with al-Bashir sworn
in as President and John Garang, SPLM/A leader, installed as First
Vice President of Sudan. Ratification of the Interim National
Constitution followed. The Constitution declares Sudan to be a
“democratic, decentralized, multi-cultural, multi-ethnic,
multi-religious, and multi-lingual State.”
On July 30, 2005, the charismatic and revered SPLM leader John
Garang died in a helicopter crash. The SPLM/A immediately named
Salva Kiir, Garang’s deputy, as First Vice President. As stipulated
in the CPA, Kiir now also holds the posts of President of the
Government of Southern Sudan and Commander-in-Chief of the SPLA.
Implemented provisions of the CPA include the formation of the
National Legislature, appointment of Cabinet members, establishment
of the Government of Southern Sudan and the signing of the Southern
Sudan Constitution, and the appointment of state governors and
adoption of state constitutions. The
electoral law, paving the way for national elections in 2009,
was passed in July 2008.
New CPA-mandated commissions have also been created. Thus far,
those formed include the National Electoral Commission, Assessment
and Evaluation Commission, National Petroleum Commission, Fiscal and
Financial Allocation and Monitoring Commission, and the North-South
Border Commission. The Ceasefire Political Commission, Joint Defense
Board, and Ceasefire Joint Military Committee were also established
as part of the security arrangements of the CPA.
With the establishment of the National Population Census Council,
a population census was conducted in early 2008 in preparation for
national elections in 2009. The results from the census are expected
in 2009. The CPA mandates that the government hold a referendum at
the end of a six-year interim period in 2011, allowing southerners
to secede if they so wish. On January 9, 2007, commemoration of the
second anniversary of the CPA was held in Juba.
While some progress has been achieved during the last two years,
meaningful implementation of key CPA requirements has faltered, and
there are still major issues that need to be addressed. Abeyi and
the Three Areas remain a point of contention, and more work needs to
be done to finalize the North-South border. Also, while much
progress has been made toward holding national elections, the pace
has been slower than expected, and additional work needs to be done
in order to meet the CPA benchmark of 2009 elections. The CPA is the
mainstay of peace in Sudan, and the international community is
highly invested in making sure it is implemented effectively.
Darfur
In 2003, while the historic north-south conflict was on its way
to resolution, increasing reports began to surface of attacks on
civilians, especially aimed at non-Arab tribes in the extremely
marginalized Darfur region of Sudan. A rebellion broke out in
Darfur, led by two rebel groups--the Sudan Liberation Movement/Army
(SLM/A) and the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM). These groups
represented agrarian farmers who are mostly non-Arabized black
African Muslims. In seeking to defeat the rebel movements, the
Government of Sudan increased arms and support to local, rival
tribes and militias, which have come to be known as the "Janjaweed."
Their members were composed mostly of Arabized black African Muslims
who herded cattle, camels, and other livestock. Attacks on the
civilian population by the Janjaweed, often with the direct support
of Government of Sudan Armed Forces (SAF), have led to the death of
hundreds of thousands of people in Darfur, with an estimated 2
million internally displaced people and another 250,000 refugees in
neighboring Chad.
On September 9, 2004, Secretary of State Colin L. Powell told the
Senate Foreign Relations Committee, "genocide has been committed in
Darfur and that the Government of Sudan and the Janjaweed bear
responsibility--and that genocide may still be occurring." President
Bush echoed this in July 2005, when he stated that the situation in
Darfur was "clearly genocide."
Intense international efforts to solve the crisis got underway,
and a cease-fire between the parties was signed in N’Djamena, Chad,
on April 8, 2004. However, despite the deployment of an African
Union (AU) military mission to monitor implementation of the
cease-fire and investigate violations, violence continued. The SLM/A
and JEM negotiated with the Government of Sudan under African Union
auspices, resulting in an agreement being signed regarding
additional protocols addressing the humanitarian and security
aspects of the conflict on November 9, 2004. Like previous
agreements, however, these were violated by both sides. Talks
resumed in Abuja on June 10, 2005, resulting in a July 6 signing of
a Declaration of Principles. Further talks were held in the fall and
early winter of 2005 and covered power sharing, wealth sharing, and
security arrangements. These negotiations were complicated by a
split that occurred in SLM/A leadership. The SLM/A now had a faction
loyal to Minni Minawi and a faction loyal to Abdel Wahid.
The African Union, with the support of the United Nations
Security Council (UNSC), the U.S., and the rest of the international
community, began deploying a larger monitoring and observer force in
October 2004. The UNSC had passed three resolutions (1556, 1564, and
1574), all intended to compel the Government of Sudan to rein in the
Janjaweed, protect the civilian population and humanitarian
participants, seek avenues toward a political settlement to the
humanitarian and political crisis, and recognize the need for the
rapid deployment of an expanded African Union mission in Darfur. The
U.S. has been a leader in pressing for strong international action
by the United Nations and its agencies.
A series of UNSC resolutions in late March 2005 underscored the
concerns of the international community regarding Sudan's continuing
conflicts. Resolution 1590 established the UN Mission in Sudan
(UNMIS) for an initial period of six months and decided that UNMIS
would consist of up to 10,000 military personnel and up to 715
civilian police personnel. It requested UNMIS to coordinate with the
African Union Mission in Sudan (AMIS) to foster peace in Darfur,
support implementation of the CPA, facilitate the voluntary return
of refugees and internally displaced persons, provide humanitarian
demining assistance, and protect human rights. The resolution also
called on the Government of Sudan and rebel groups to resume the
Abuja talks and support a peaceful settlement to the conflict in
Darfur, including ensuring safe access for peacekeeping and
humanitarian operations.
Resolution 1591 criticized the Government of Sudan and rebels in
Darfur for having failed to comply with several previous UNSC
resolutions, for ceasefire violations, and for human rights abuses.
The resolution also called on all parties to resume the Abuja talks
and to support a peaceful settlement to the conflict in Darfur; it
also forms a monitoring committee charged with enforcing a travel
ban and asset freeze of those determined to impede the peace process
or violate human rights. Additionally, the resolution demanded that
the Government of Sudan cease conducting offensive military flights
in and over the Darfur region. Finally, Resolution 1593 referred the
situation in Darfur to the prosecutor of the International Criminal
Court (ICC) and called on the Government of Sudan and all other
parties to the conflict in Darfur to cooperate with the ICC.
Following the UNSC resolutions and intense international
pressure, the Darfur rebel groups and the Government of Sudan
resumed negotiations in Abuja, Nigeria in early 2006. On May 5,
2006, the government and an SLM/A faction led by Minni Minawi signed
the Darfur Peace Agreement (DPA). Unfortunately, the conflict in
Darfur intensified shortly thereafter, led by rebel groups who
refused to sign. In late August government forces began a major
offensive on rebel areas in Northern Darfur. On August 30, the
Security Council adopted UNSCR 1706, authorizing the transition of
AMIS to a larger more robust UN peacekeeping operation. To further
facilitate an end to the conflict in Darfur, President Bush
announced the appointment of Andrew S. Natsios as the Special Envoy
for Sudan on September 19, 2006.
In an effort to resolve Sudan’s opposition to a UN force, UN
Secretary General Kofi Annan and African Union Commission Chair
Alpha Oumar Konare convened a meeting of key international officials
and representatives of several African and Arab states in Addis
Ababa on November 16, 2006. The agreement reached with the
Government of Sudan provided for graduated UN support to AMIS
culminating in the establishment of a joint ‘hybrid” AU-UN
peacekeeping operation in Darfur.
International efforts in 2007 focused on rallying support for DPA
signatory and non-signatory rebel movements to attend renewed peace
talks, and on finalizing plans for the joint AU/UN hybrid operation.
UN Security Council Resolution 1769 was adopted on July 31, 2007,
providing the mandate for a joint AU/UN hybrid force to deploy to
Darfur with troop contributions from African countries. The UN
African Mission in Darfur (UNAMID) was to assume authority from AMIS
in the field no later than December 31, 2007.
Following the passage of UNSCR 1769, a conference was held August
3-5 in Arusha, Tanzania between key UN and AU officials and
delegates from Darfur rebel groups. Many movements’ political and
military leaderships were brought into the discussion in preparation
for earnest peace talks. Peace talks between the Government of Sudan
and rebel factions took place in Sirte, Libya on October 27, 2007.
However, limited rebel participation and continuing disagreement
about objectives and processes limited the effectiveness of these
talks. Following the Sirte talks, the SPLM hosted workshops in Juba,
Southern Sudan, to unite the rebel groups and allow them to come
together to present a common front during negotiations. The Juba
talks led to a consolidation of rebel factions down to five groups
from an estimated 27. The U.S. continues to support the efforts of
the UN and AU to host workshops for the rebel groups as a foundation
for future negotiations. On December 21, 2007 President Bush
announced the appointment of Ambassador Richard S. Williamson as
Special Envoy for Sudan, following the resignation of Andrew S.
Natsios.
On July 14, 2008 the Chief Prosecutor of the International Criminal
Court (ICC), Luis Moreno-Ocampo, announced that he was seeking an
arrest warrant for President Bashir for allegedly masterminding
genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity in Darfur. On
March 4, 2009 the ICC announced that it was issuing an arrest
warrant for President Bashir for crimes against humanity and war
crimes. The three-judge panel that issued the warrant did not feel
there was enough evidence to include the crime of genocide on the
warrant. However, should new information come to light, the charges
can be amended. The mandate for UNAMID was renewed in mid-2008;
however, the U.S. abstained on this resolution because it contained
a reference to a possible deferral of consideration of Bashir’s case
under Article 16 of the Rome Statute, language inserted at the
behest of the Government of Sudan by its UN Security Council allies.
In order to move quickly to find a solution to the violence in
Darfur under the pressure of a possible ICC indictment, Sudan opened
the Sudan People’s Initiative in October 2008. The conference
brought together many Darfur rebel groups with the government for a
conference to explore solutions and how to better implement the
existing framework of the DPA. It culminated in the announcement of
a unilateral Darfur ceasefire, which was reportedly violated within
days of the declaration. Talks in Doha, Qatar, between the
Government of Sudan and several Darfuri rebel groups, most notably
JEM, began in early 2009. The Doha talks have thus far produced an
agreement of goodwill and confidence-building between JEM and the
Government of Sudan.
Humanitarian Situation
Sudan continues to cope with the countrywide effects of conflict,
displacement, and insecurity. During more than 20 years of conflict
between the Government of Sudan and the Sudan People's Liberation
Movement/Army (SPLM/A), violence, famine, and disease killed more
than 2 million people, forced an estimated 600,000 people to seek
refuge in neighboring countries, and displaced approximately 4
million others within Sudan, creating the world's largest population
of internally displaced people. Since the 2005 signing of the
Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA), which officially ended the
North-South conflict, the UN estimates that nearly 2 million
displaced people have returned to Southern Sudan and the Three Areas
of Southern Kordofan, Blue Nile, and Abeyi.
In March 2009, however, the Government of Sudan expelled 13
international humanitarian aid organizations from Sudan and shut
down thee national aid organizations in a decision it publicly
claimed was “long-overdue.” These organizations served as U.S.
Government and UN implementing partners for provision of, among
other services, water and sanitation, health care, and protection,
and their forced departure, according to the UN, affects 50% of aid
delivery in Sudan.
The conflict in the western region of Darfur entered its fifth
year in 2008, despite a 2006 peace agreement--the Darfur Peace
Agreement (DPA)--between the Government of National Unity and one
faction of the Sudan Liberation Army, that of Minni Minawi. Fighting
among armed opposition group factions, the Sudanese Armed Forces,
and militias continues, displacing hundreds of thousands of
civilians--230,000 since January 2008 alone. The complex emergency
in Darfur affects approximately 4.2 million people, including more
than 2.5 million internally displaced people in both Sudan and Chad.
The U.S. Government is the leading international donor to Sudan
and has contributed more than $5 billion in humanitarian,
development, peacekeeping, and reconstruction assistance for the
people in Sudan and eastern Chad since 2005, including more than $1
billion in FY 2007 alone. The U.S. Mission in Sudan has declared
disasters due to the complex emergency on an annual basis since
1987. On October 16, 2007, U.S. Charge d'Affaires Alberto M.
Fernandez renewed the Sudan disaster declaration for FY 2008. The
U.S. Government continues to lead the international effort to
support implementation of the CPA, while providing for the
humanitarian needs of conflict-affected populations throughout the
country. U.S. Government humanitarian assistance to Sudan includes
food aid, provision of health care, water, sanitation, and hygiene,
as well as programs for nutrition, agriculture, protection, and
economic recovery.
Principal Government Officials
President, Prime Minister, and Commander in Chief of the Armed
Forces--Lt. Gen. Omar Hassan Ahmed al-Bashir
First Vice President--Salva Kiir
Vice President--Ali Osman Muhamad Taha
Foreign Minister--Deng Alor Kuol
Ambassador to the U.S.--Sudan is represented by Charge d'Affaires
Akec Khoc Aciew Khoc
Ambassador to the UN--Abdalmahmood Abdalhaleem Mohamed
Sudan maintains an
embassy in the United States at 2210 Massachusetts Ave. NW,
Washington, DC 20008 (tel: (202) 338-8565; fax: (202) 667-2406).
The regional Government of Southern Sudan maintains a
liaison office in the United States at 1233 20th St. NW, Suite
602, Washington, DC 20036 (tel: (202) 293-7940; fax: (202)
293-7941).
ECONOMY
In 2004, the cessation of major north-south hostilities and
expanding crude oil exports resulted in 6.4% GDP growth and a near
doubling of GDP per capita since 2003. The aftereffects of the
21-year civil war and very limited infrastructure, however, present
obstacles to stronger growth and a broader distribution of income.
The country continued taking some steps toward transitioning from a
socialist to a market-based economy, although the government and
governing party supporters remained heavily involved in the economy.
Sudan’s primary resources are agricultural, but oil production and
export have taken on greater importance since October 2000. Although
the country is trying to diversify its cash crops, cotton, and gum
arabic remain its major agricultural exports. Grain sorghum (dura)
is the principal food crop, and millet and wheat are grown for
domestic consumption. Sesame seeds and peanuts are cultivated for
domestic consumption and increasingly for export. Livestock
production has vast potential, and many animals, particularly camels
and sheep, are exported to Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and other Arab
countries. However, Sudan remains a net importer of food. Problems
of irrigation and transportation remain the greatest constraints to
a more dynamic agricultural economy.
The country’s transportation facilities consist of 5,978
kilometers of railways, 16 airports with paved runways, and about
11,900 kilometers of paved and gravel road--primarily in greater
Khartoum, Port Sudan, and the north. Some north-south roads that
serve the oil fields of central/south Sudan have been built; and a
1,400 kilometer. (840 miles) oil pipeline goes from the oil fields
via the Nuba Mountains and Khartoum to the oil export terminal in
Port Sudan on the Red Sea.
Sudan’s limited industrial development consists of agricultural
processing and various light industries located in Khartoum North.
In recent years, the GIAD industrial complex introduced the assembly
of small autos and trucks, and some heavy military equipment such as
armored personnel carriers and the proposed "Bashir" main battle
tank. Although Sudan is reputed to have great mineral resources,
exploration has been quite limited, and the country’s real potential
is unknown. Small quantities of asbestos, chromium, and mica are
exploited commercially.
Extensive petroleum exploration began in the mid-1970s and might
cover all of Sudan’s economic and energy needs. Significant finds
were made in the Upper Nile region and commercial quantities of oil
began to be exported in October 2000, reducing Sudan’s outflow of
foreign exchange for imported petroleum products. There are
indications of significant potential reserves of oil and natural gas
in southern Sudan, the Kordofan region and the Red Sea province.
Historically, the U.S., the Netherlands, Italy, Germany, Saudi
Arabia, Kuwait, and other Organization of Petroleum Exporting
Countries (OPEC) have supplied most of Sudan’s economic assistance.
Sudan’s role as an economic link between Arab and African countries
is reflected by the presence in Khartoum of the Arab Bank for
African Development. The World Bank had been the largest source of
development loans.
Sudan will require extraordinary levels of program assistance and
debt relief to manage a foreign debt exceeding $21 billion, more
than the country’s entire annual gross domestic product. During the
late 1970s and 1980s, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), World
Bank, and key donors worked closely to promote reforms to counter
the effect of inefficient economic policies and practices. By 1984,
a combination of factors--including drought, inflation, and confused
application of Islamic law--reduced donor disbursements, and capital
flight led to a serious foreign-exchange crisis and increased
shortages of imported inputs and commodities. More significantly,
the 1989 revolution caused many donors in Europe, the U.S., and
Canada to suspend official development assistance, but not
humanitarian aid.
However, as Sudan became the world’s largest debtor to the World
Bank and IMF by 1993, its relationship with the international
financial institutions soured in the mid-1990s and has yet to be
fully rehabilitated. The government fell out of compliance with an
IMF standby program and accumulated substantial arrearages on
repurchase obligations. A 4-year economic reform plan was announced
in 1988 but was not pursued. An economic reform plan was announced
in 1989 and implementation began on a 3-year economic restructuring
program designed to reduce the public sector deficit, end subsidies,
privatize state enterprises, and encourage new foreign and domestic
investment. In 1993, the IMF suspended Sudan’s voting rights and the
World Bank suspended Sudan’s right to make withdrawals under
effective and fully disbursed loans and credits. Lome Funds and
European Union agricultural credits, totaling more than 1 billion
euros, also were suspended.
Sudan produces about 401,000 barrels per day (b/d) (2005 est.) of
oil, which brought in about $1.9 billion in 2005 and provides 70% of
the country’s total export earnings. Although final figures are not
yet available, these earnings may have risen to an estimated $2
billion as of the end of 2004. Oil production in Sudan as of 2007
was at 466,100 barrels of oil a day. With a resolution of its
21-year civil war between the North and South, Sudan and its people
can now begin to reap the benefit from its natural resources,
rebuild its infrastructure, increase oil production and exports, and
be able to attain its export and development potential.
In 2000-2001, Sudan’s current account entered surplus for the first
time since independence. In 1993, currency controls were imposed,
making it illegal to possess foreign exchange without approval. In
1999, liberalization of foreign exchange markets ameliorated this
constraint somewhat. Exports other than oil are largely stagnant.
The small industrial sector remains in the doldrums, and Sudan’s
inadequate and declining infrastructure inhibits economic growth.
DEFENSE
The Sudan People’s Armed Forces is a 100,000-member army supported
by a small air force and navy. Irregular tribal and former rebel
militias and Popular Defense Forces supplement the army’s strength
in the field. This is a mixed force, having the additional duty of
maintaining internal security. During the 1990s, periodic purges of
the professional officer corps by the ruling Islamist regime eroded
command authority as well as war-fighting capabilities. Indeed, the
Sudanese Government admitted it was incapable of carrying out its
war aims against the SPLA without employing former rebel and Arab
militias to fight in support of regular troops. Additionally, as
mandated in the CPA, the Southern Sudanese maintain their own armed
forces in the form of the SPLA.
Sudan’s military forces historically have been hampered by limited
and outdated equipment. In the 1980s, the U.S. worked with the
Sudanese Government to upgrade equipment with special emphasis on
airlift capacity and logistics. All U.S. military assistance was
terminated following the military coup of 1989. Oil revenues have
allowed the government to purchase modern weapons systems, including
Hind helicopter gunships, Antonov medium bombers, MiG 23 fighter
aircraft, mobile artillery pieces, and light assault weapons. Sudan
now receives most of its military equipment from China, Russia, and
Libya.
FOREIGN RELATIONS
Solidarity with other Arab countries has been a feature of
Sudan’s foreign policy. When the Arab-Israeli war began in June
1967, Sudan declared war on Israel. However, in the early 1970s,
Sudan gradually shifted its stance and was supportive of the Camp
David Accords.
Relations between Sudan and Libya deteriorated in the early 1970s
and reached a low in October 1981, when Libya began a policy of
cross-border raids into western Sudan. After the 1985 coup in Sudan,
the military government resumed diplomatic relations with Libya, as
part of a policy of improving relations with neighboring and Arab
states. In early 1990, Libya and the Sudan announced that they would
seek "unity," but this unity was not implemented.
During the 1990s, as Sudan sought to steer a nonaligned course,
courting Western aid and seeking rapprochement with Arab states, its
relations with the U.S. grew increasingly strained. Sudan’s ties
with countries like North Korea and Libya and its support for
regional insurgencies such as Egyptian Islamic Jihad, Eritrean
Islamic Jihad, Ethiopian Islamic Jihad, Palestinian Islamic Jihad,
Hamas, Hezbollah, and the Lord’s Resistance Army generated great
concern about its contribution to regional instability. Allegations
of the government’s complicity in the assassination attempt against
the Egyptian President in Ethiopia in 1995 led to UNSC sanctions
against the Sudan. By the late 1990s, Sudan experienced strained or
broken diplomatic relations with most of its nine neighboring
countries. However, since 2000, Sudan has actively sought regional
rapprochement that has rehabilitated most of these relations.
U.S.-SUDANESE RELATIONS
Sudan broke diplomatic relations with the U.S. in June 1967,
following the outbreak of the Arab-Israeli War. Relations improved
after July 1971, when the Sudanese Communist Party attempted to
overthrow President Nimeiri, and Nimeiri suspected Soviet
involvement. U.S. assistance for resettlement of refugees following
the 1972 peace settlement with the south added further improved
relations.
On March 1, 1973, Palestinian terrorists of the "Black September"
organization murdered U.S. Ambassador Cleo A. Noel and Deputy Chief
of Mission Curtis G. Moore in Khartoum. Sudanese officials arrested
the terrorists and tried them on murder charges. In June 1974,
however, they were released to the custody of the Egyptian
Government. The U.S. Ambassador to the Sudan was withdrawn in
protest. Although the U.S. Ambassador returned to Khartoum in
November, relations with the Sudan remained static until early 1976,
when President Nimeiri mediated the release of 10 American hostages
being held by Eritrean insurgents in rebel strongholds in northern
Ethiopia. In 1976, the U.S. decided to resume economic assistance to
the Sudan.
In late 1985, there was a reduction in staff at the U.S. Embassy
in Khartoum because of the presence in Khartoum of a large
contingent of Libyan terrorists. In April 1986, relations with Sudan
deteriorated when the U.S. bombed Tripoli, Libya. A U.S. Embassy
employee was shot on April 16, 1986. Immediately following this
incident, all non-essential personnel and all dependents left for
six months. At this time, Sudan was the single largest recipient of
U.S. development and military assistance in sub-Saharan Africa.
However, official U.S. development assistance was suspended in 1989
in the wake of the military coup against the elected government,
which brought to power the National Islamist Front led by General
Bashir.
U.S. relations with Sudan were further strained in the 1990s.
Sudan backed Iraq in its invasion of Kuwait and provided sanctuary
and assistance to Islamic terrorist groups. In the early and
mid-1990s, Carlos the Jackal, Osama bin Laden, Abu Nidal, and other
terrorist leaders resided in Khartoum. Sudan’s role in the radical
Pan-Arab Islamic Conference represented a matter of great concern to
the security of American officials and dependents in Khartoum,
resulting in several draw downs and/or evacuations of U.S. personnel
from Khartoum in the early-mid 1990s. Sudan’s Islamist links with
international terrorist organizations represented a special matter
of concern for the U.S. Government, leading to Sudan's 1993
designation as a state sponsor of terrorism and a suspension of U.S.
Embassy operations in Khartoum in 1996. In October 1997, the U.S.
imposed comprehensive economic, trade, and financial sanctions
against the Sudan. In August 1998, in the wake of the East Africa
embassy bombings, the U.S. launched cruise missile strikes against
Khartoum. The last U.S. Ambassador to the Sudan, Ambassador Tim
Carney, departed post prior to this event and no new ambassador has
been designated since. The U.S. Embassy is headed by a Charge
d’Affaires. The Embassy continues to re-evaluate its posture in
Sudan, particularly in the wake of the January 1, 2008, killings of
a U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) employee and his
Sudanese driver in Kharotum.
The U.S. and Sudan entered into a bilateral dialogue on
counter-terrorism in May 2000. Sudan has provided concrete
cooperation against international terrorism since the September 11,
2001, terrorism strikes on New York and Washington. However,
although Sudan publicly supported the international coalition
actions against the al Qaida network and the Taliban in Afghanistan,
the government criticized the U.S. strikes in that country and
opposed a widening of the effort against international terrorism to
other countries. Sudan remains on the state sponsors of terrorism
list.
In response to the Government of Sudan’s continued complicity in
unabated violence occurring in Darfur, President Bush imposed new
economic sanctions on Sudan in May 2007. The sanctions blocked
assets of Sudanese citizens implicated in Darfur violence, and also
sanctioned additional companies owned or controlled by the
Government of Sudan. Sanctions continue to underscore U.S. efforts
to end the suffering of the millions of Sudanese affected by the
crisis in Darfur.
Despite policy differences the U.S. has been a major donor of
humanitarian aid to the Sudan throughout the last quarter century.
The U.S. was a major donor in the March 1989 "Operation Lifeline
Sudan," which delivered 100,000 metric tons of food into both
government and SPLA-held areas of the Sudan, thus averting
widespread starvation. In 1991, the U.S. made major donations to
alleviate food shortages caused by a two-year drought. In a similar
drought in 2000-01, the U.S. and the international community
responded to avert mass starvation in the Sudan. In 2001 the Bush
administration named a presidential envoy for peace in the Sudan to
explore what role the U.S. could play in ending Sudan's civil war
and enhancing the delivery of humanitarian aid. Andrew Natsios and
subsequently Ambassador Richard Williamson served as presidential
envoys to Sudan during the Bush administration. On March 18, 2009
President Obama announced the appointment of Major General J. Scott
Gration as the U.S. Special Envoy for Sudan.
Principal U.S. Officials
Ambassador--vacant
Charge d'Affaires--Alberto Fernandez
Deputy Chief of Mission--Mark Asquino
USAID Director--Patrick Fleuret
Political-Economic Chief--Jonathan Pratt
Public Affairs Officer--Judith Ravin
The
U.S. Embassy in Sudan is located at Shari’a Ali Abdul Latif,
P.O. Box 699, Khartoum (tel. 249-11-774-700; 774-704). Hours are 8
a.m. to 4:30 p.m. Sunday through Thursday.
TRAVEL AND
BUSINESS INFORMATION
The U.S. Department of State's Consular Information Program advises
Americans traveling and residing abroad through Country Specific
Information, Travel Alerts, and Travel Warnings. Country Specific
Information exists for all countries and includes information on
entry and exit requirements, currency regulations, health
conditions, safety and security, crime, political disturbances, and
the addresses of the U.S. embassies and consulates abroad. Travel
Alerts are issued to disseminate information quickly about
terrorist threats and other relatively short-term conditions
overseas that pose significant risks to the security of American
travelers. Travel Warnings are issued when the State
Department recommends that Americans avoid travel to a certain
country because the situation is dangerous or unstable.
For the latest security information, Americans living and
traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department's Bureau of
Consular Affairs Internet web site at
http://www.travel.state.gov, where the current
Worldwide Caution,
Travel Alerts, and
Travel Warnings can be found.
Consular Affairs Publications, which contain information on
obtaining passports and planning a safe trip abroad, are also
available at
http://www.travel.state.gov. For additional information on
international travel, see
http://www.usa.gov/Citizen/Topics/Travel/International.shtml.
The Department of State encourages all U.S. citizens traveling or
residing abroad to register via the
State Department's travel registration website or at the nearest
U.S. embassy or consulate abroad. Registration will make your
presence and whereabouts known in case it is necessary to contact
you in an emergency and will enable you to receive up-to-date
information on security conditions.
Emergency information concerning Americans traveling abroad may
be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S. and
Canada or the regular toll line 1-202-501-4444 for callers outside
the U.S. and Canada.
The
National Passport Information Center (NPIC) is the U.S.
Department of State's single, centralized public contact center for
U.S. passport information. Telephone: 1-877-4-USA-PPT
(1-877-487-2778); TDD/TTY: 1-888-874-7793. Passport information is
available 24 hours, 7 days a week. You may speak with a
representative Monday-Friday, 8 a.m. to 10 p.m., Eastern Time,
excluding federal holidays.
Travelers can check the latest health information with the U.S.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta, Georgia. A
hotline at 800-CDC-INFO (800-232-4636) and a web site at
http://wwwn.cdc.gov/travel/default.aspx give the most recent
health advisories, immunization recommendations or requirements, and
advice on food and drinking water safety for regions and countries.
The CDC publication "Health Information for International Travel"
can be found at
http://wwwn.cdc.gov/travel/contentYellowBook.aspx.
Further Electronic Information
Department of State Web Site. Available on the Internet at
http://www.state.gov, the Department of State web site provides
timely, global access to official U.S. foreign policy information,
including
Background Notes and
daily press briefings along with the directory of
key officers of Foreign Service posts and more. The Overseas
Security Advisory Council (OSAC) provides security information and
regional news that impact U.S. companies working abroad through its
website
http://www.osac.gov
Export.gov provides a portal to all export-related assistance
and market information offered by the federal government and
provides trade leads, free export counseling, help with the export
process, and more.
STAT-USA/Internet, a service of the U.S. Department of Commerce,
provides authoritative economic, business, and international trade
information from the Federal government. The site includes current
and historical trade-related releases, international market
research, trade opportunities, and country analysis and provides
access to the
National Trade Data Bank.
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